Chemical Engineering Mass Transfer from HelpWithAssignment.com

Chemical Engineering Mass Transfer

The field of Heat Transfer explores the rate at which heat flows from a region of high temperature to one of low temperature. Heat flow occurs as molecules transfer their thermal energy, in the form of molecular motion, to nearby lower energy molecules or by fast moving molecules moving to another region of the system.

The mechanisms of Heat Transfer can be categorized as occurring by convection, conduction, or radiative processes. Convection occurs in a liquid or gas as high energy, fast moving molecules create an area of low density media that rises relative to the slower moving, denser regions. This molecular movement redistributes the energy in a system. This type of heat transfer is how heated air from a register moves around a room to reach a pleasant 22 ̊C (72 ̊ F) during the winter. Conduction occurs as high energy molecules collide with lower energy molecules thereby transferring some of their kinetic energy to their collision partner. Conduction transfers the thermal energy around more evenly, allowing heat to travel from warmer to cooler regions. Conductive heating is used in electric stoves to heat pans for cooking. Radiative heat transfer occurs when a warm object emits electromagnetic radiation. The radiation can be used to heat an object at a distance from the heat source.

These mechanisms tell about how heat travels in systems, but rate of transfer is also important. The most common way to describe the heat transfer rate is through the use of thermal conductivity coefficients, which define how quickly heat will travel per unit of length (or area for convection processes). Every material has a characteristic thermal conductivity coefficient. Metals have high thermal conductiveness, while polymers generally exhibit low thermal conductivities. One interesting application of thermal conductivity is the utilization of calcium carbonate in blown film processing. Calcium carbonate is added to a polyethylene resin to increase the heat transfer rate from the melt to the air surrounding the bottle. Without calcium carbonate, the resin cools much more slowly and production rates are decreased.

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Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics from HelpWithAssignment.com

Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics from HelpWithAssignment.com

Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics is the study of relationship between heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. The subject involves the study of laboratory measurements of various thermodynamic properties and also the study of application of mathematical methods and calculations to the chemical equations.

The subject of chemical Thermodynamics is based on the laws of thermodynamics. The study of laws of thermodynamics leads to the derivation of the fundamental equations of thermodynamics or the equations of Gibbs.

J William Gibbs, who was an American mathematical physicist published a series of papers in which he showed mathematically how to determine the thermodynamic equilibrium of chemical equations.

Heat and work are both forms energy. They are related in a sense that one can be transformed into the other form. Heat from steam can be used to run a train, or the friction between two things can cause heat. Heat and work can be described using the same unit of measure. Calorie is used as a unit of measure and it refers to the amount of heat required to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius. Heat energy is measured in kilocalories or 1000 calories. A fully grown man requires 2000 calories or 2Kcal of energy everyday to perform his routine activities. On the other hand Joules or Kilojoules is used to measure energy required to perform work. One Joule is equivalent to the energy required to lift a hundred gram object in air to a height of one meter. One Calorie is equal to 4.187 Joules.

C = q/MΔT

Where C = Specific heat in cal/g - ̊C

q = heat added in calories

m = mass in grams

ΔT = rise in temperature of the material ̊C

The value for C for water is 1.00 cal/g- ̊C

The first law of thermodynamics

Energy is conserved. In other words energy cannot be created or destroyed. One change the form of energy but it cannot create it or destroy it.

The mathematical statement of the first law is phrased in terms of a process. Given any change or process.

Initial state ----- Final State

ΔU = U_final - U_initial

The second law of thermodynamics

It is impossible for heat to move from spontaneously from a cold body to a hot body with no other result,

It is impossible to convert heat quantitatively into work with no other result

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Sales Promotion in Marketing Management from HelpwithAssignment.com

Sales Promotion in Marketing Management from HelpwithAssignment.com

The term Sales Promotion means an action which increases the capacity of sales. In words of Bonne, E Louis and Kurtz, L. David, “it applies to assorted and non recurrent and somewhat extraordinary non-personal selling efforts”. Several authors have defined Sales Promotion as a non-personal selling and it is also known non-recurring promotional efforts.

Related Objectives of Sales Promotion:

It is a manager’s responsibility to specify the required promotion objectives and policies. Though Sales Promotion and marketing objectives maintain similar consistent levels, they may vary with the type of target market and points of channel.

· Objectives for Retailers: Retailers carry new items, they encourage off season buying, offset competitive promotions also they build brand loyalties and many more.

· Objectives for Sales Force: To encourage a new, product or model to stimulate off-season sales and so on.

· Objectives of Consumers: To encourage more usage and purchase of larger units and also to attract competitors brand users.

Fundamental Objectives of Sales Promotion:

1) To Inform: Informing is letting know to the customers about the new product that is being offered by the producer. Producers should always be able to assure that the new product works better than all the similar present products.

2) To Persuade: Generally Sales persons persuade or convince customers to buy their products. They develop an affirmative set of approach and influence their buying behavior. To attract consumers, the sales persons supply comparative information on various products.

3) To Remind: Reminding the first place of the firms to reinforce the previous satisfactory behavior of the customers. It is always a good way by reminding the customers of their past satisfaction will convince them to stay with their product and keep them from shifting to competitors.

Importance of Sales Promotion:

Sales Promotion is consistently accepted as an effective sales Promotion tool. Internal and external factors play a crucial role in the process of Sales Promotion to be successful. While other promotional sources such as, media are costly and not very effective. Sales Promotion as mass advertising idea has to carry the whole promotional load. In case of personal selling capacity is limited. Sales Promotion has a great chance in acceptability of the products by the customers. This stimulates the primary demand for the company’s product. Mass Sales Promotion can convince the customers easily to purchase goods and services. Sales Promotion is an important tool in developing product symbolization. This may create awareness, interest and adoption of the new product to the customers as, it provides an opportunity for evaluation, trail and confirmation of brand loyalty.

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Probability in Statistics from HelpwithAssignment.com

Probability in Statistics from HelpwithAssignment.com

Probability is the study of random or unpredictable experiments, where it is helpful in investigating important features of random experiments. The origin of probability theory was based on the analysis of certain games of chance that was well known in 17^th century. Many branches of science and engineering have found an extensive scope of application which makes probability as one of important studies.

Sample Space and Events

In probability theory, the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment, denoted as Ω is known as Sample Space. An element in Ω is called a Sample Point or a Sample Element. An Event A is a set of particular type of outcomes of an experiment in probability theory. It is a subset of a sample space.

A simple formula explains Probability Theory

Probability (P) = Number of Events/ Total Number of outcomes

A Venn diagram of an event B is the sample space and A is an event.

By the ratio of their areas, the probability of A is approximately 0.4.

Types of Sample Spaces:

There are 3 types of Sample Spaces in probability theory are listed and explained with illustrations such as, (i) finite, (ii) countable infinite and (iii) uncountable

Illustration1. Finite: A coin is tossed in air for three times and observed the sequence of heads (H) and tails (T) that appear. Here the sample space is Ω = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT} consist of eight elements and this becomes an example of finite sample space.

Illustration 2. Countable infinite: A coin is tossed and counted until the outcome appears as heads. The sample space is Ω = {1, 2, 3, 4…Infinity }. Here Infinity refers to the case when a head never appears and so the coin is tossed an infinite number of times. This is an example of Countable Infinite.

Illustration 3. Uncountable: In this example, let’s take a pencil, head first and drop it in a rectangular box, note the point on the bottom of the box that the pencil first touches. Now here Ω consists of all points on the bottom of the box.

Properties of Probability Functions:

Here are the few common properties of a probability functions which are proved by using the definition of probability function.

Theorem 1 If ø is the empty event, then P (ø) = 0

Proof: If A is an event, then A and ø are disjoint. Again A = A ø.

P (A) = P (A ø)

= P (A) + P (ø)

Hence,

P (ø) = P (A) – P (A)

= 0

Theorem 2 If A is any event in sample space Ω then P (Ă) = 1- P (A).

Proof: If A is any event, then A and Ă are disjoint and Ω = A Ă

1 = P (Ω)

= P (A U Ă)

= P (A) + P (Ă)

Hence,

P (Ă) = 1- P (A)

The two events A and B are called mutually exclusive if they are disjoint, that is, A B =ø

In other words A and B cannot occur simultaneously. A sample space, where each sample point has the same probability is called an equiprobable sample space.

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The article is in continuation with our previous articles on Probability & Statistics that include SPSS Statistics Assignment help, Statistics Assignment Help, Statistics Correlation Assignment Help, Statistics Regression Assignment Help

The structure of Atoms and Subatomic Particles in Chemistry from HelpWithAssignment.com

The structure of Atoms and Subatomic Particles

The study of chemistry begins with atoms, the basic building blocks of matter. Early theories of atom considered atoms to be invisible, but we know now that this idea is wrong. Elements differ from one another because of differences in the internal structure of their atoms. Under the right conditions, smaller particles within atoms – known as subatomic particles – can be removed or rearranged. The term atomic structure refers to the identity and arrangement of these subatomic particles in the atom. An understanding of how atoms combine to form compounds and are rearranged in chemical reactions. Atomic structures also accounts for the properties of materials.

Atomic Structure and Subatomic particles

Electrical charges played an important role in many of the experiments from which the theory of atomic structure was derived. Two types of electrical charge exist: positive and negative charge. Electrical charges of the same type repel one another and charges of the opposite type attract one another. A positively charged particle repels another positively charged particle. Likewise, two negatively charged particles repel each other. In contrast, two particles with opposite signs attract each other.

Radioactivity

In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that a sample of a uranium ore emitted rays that darkened a photographic plate, even though the plate was covered by a protective black paper. In 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie isolated the new elements polonium and radium, which emitted the same kind of rays. Marie suggested that atoms of such elements spontaneously emit these rays and named the phenomenon radioactivity.

Atoms of radioactive elements can emit three types of radiation: alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) rays. These radiations behave differently when passed between electrically charged plates. Alpha and beta rays are deflected, but gamma rays are not. These events occur because alpha rays and beta rays are composed of charged particles that come from within the radioactive atom. Alpha rays have 2+ charge and beta rays have a 1 – charge. Alpha rays and beta rays are particles because they have mass – they are matter. Experiments revealed that alpha particles were deflected less so must be heavier than beta particles. Gamma rays did not have any detectable charge or mass as they behaved like light rays. If radioactive atoms can break apart to produce subatomic alpha and beta particles, then there must be something smaller inside the atoms.

Electrons

Further evidence that atoms are composed of subatomic particles came from experiments with specially constructed glass tubes called cathode-ray tubes. Most of the air was removed from these tubes and metal electrode sealed into each end. When a sufficiently high voltage is applied to the electrodes, a beam of rays flows from the negatively charged electrode (the cathode) to the positively charged electrode (the anode). These rays, known as cathode rays, come directly from the metal atoms of the cathode. The cathode rays travel in straight lines, are attracted toward positively charged plates, can be deflected by a magnetic field, can cast sharp shadows, can heat metal objects red hot and can cause gases and fluorescent materials to glow. When cathode rays strike a fluorescent screen, the energy transferred causes light to be given off as tiny flashes. Thus, the properties of cathode ray are those of a beam of negatively charged particles, each of which produces light flash when it hits a fluorescent screen. Sir Joseph John Thomson suggested that cathode rays consist of the same particles that had earlier been named electrons and had been suggested to be the carriers of electricity. He also observed that cathode rays were produced from electrodes made from different metals. This implied that electrons are constituents of the atoms of those elements.

In 1897, Thomson used a specially designed cathode ray tube to simultaneously apply electric and magnetic fields to a beam of cathode rays. By balancing the electric field against the magnetic field and using the basic laws of electricity and magnetism, Thomson calculated that the mass of charge for the electrons in the cathode ray beam: 5.60 × 10^-9 grams per Coulomb (g/C).

Protons

When atoms loose electrons, the atoms become positively charged. When atoms gain electrons, the atoms become negatively charged. Such charged atoms, or similarly charged group of atoms are known as ions. From experiments with positive ions, formed by knocking electrons out of atoms, the existence of a positively charged fundamental particle was deducted. Positively charged particles with different mass-to-charge ratios were formed by atoms of different elements. The variation in masses showed that atoms of different elements must contain different numbers of positive particles. Those from hydrogen atoms had the smallest mass-to-charge ratio, indicating that they are the fundamental positively charged particles of atomic structure. Such particles are called protons. The mass of a proton is known from experiment to be 1.67262129 × 10^-24 g, which is about 1800 times the mass of an electron. The charge of a proton is 1.602176462 × 10^-19 C, equal in size, but opposite in sign, to the charge on an electron. The proton’s charge is represented by 1+. Thus, an atom that has lost two electron has a charge of 2+.

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This article is in continuation with our previous articles on Chemistry which include Classification of matter in Chemistry, Periodic Table in Chemistry

Product life Cycle Management from HelpwithAssignment.com

Product Life Cycle Management

Product life Cycle Management makes it possible to instruct the whole lifespan of a product and information related with it. Effective product life cycle management enables companies to compete successfully in international and global markets.

What is a product?

It is usually believed that a product means tangible goods. The term goods refers to physical, tangible products that can be owned traded and distributed to different places at different times without changing their identity. A product however in this modern world can be intangible such as, a piece of knowledge, software or a formula of an algorithm.

There are three different kinds of products that are mentioned below:

1. Goods meaning Physical, tangible Products

2. Services

3. Intangible products which mean non-physical products that are not services.

For Example: Software and An algorithm

Product Lifecycle Management: (PLM)

In many ways Product data management can be seen as a subset of PLM. PLM is a holistic business concept developed to manage a product and its life style. The scope of product information being stored, refined, searched and shared with expanded PLM This includes not only the items documents BOM’s also analysis results, test specification, environment component information, quality standards, engineering requirements, change orders, manufacturing producers, product performance information etc. A PLM system is a collaborative back bone allowing people throughout extended enterprises to work together more effectively.

Accomplishments of Product Lifecycle Management:

Product life management is a systematic and controlled concept for managing products with their related information. PLM offers management and control product process and the order delivery process. The control of product related information throughout the product life cycle from the initial idea to the scrap yard. The PDM and PLM term also refers to the information systems developed to manage product lifecycle and product related data.

In many fields of manufacturing industry, the order- delivery process is also called as customer process due to the frequency of build-to-order production. The fulfillment of customers purchase order that is the manufacture and delivery of actual product is allocated to a certain customer to a certain product. Where NPI refers to New Information Product.

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This article is in continuation with our previous articles on Marketing that include 7Ps of Service Marketing Mix, Integrated Marketing Communication, Target Market Selection, Market Analysis

Periodic Table in Chemistry from HelpWithAssignment.com

Periodic Table in Chemistry

The table in which the elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic number is called periodic table. The similar properties which recur after a regular interval are called the periodic properties. Several attempts were made to classify the elements so as to make their study simple and systematic. J.W. Dobereiner arranged the elements in the group of three called triads. According to this, the chemically similar elements were arranged in the increasing order of their atomic weights in the group of three to make a triad. It was noted that the atomic weight of middle element present in a triad is the mean of the other two elements.

Triad of alkali metals – lithium, sodium and potassium have atomic weights 7, 23 and 39 respectively. By taking the arithmetic mean of lithium and potassium we get the atomic weight of sodium as 7+39/2 = 46/2 = 23.

Triad of halogens – chlorine, bromine and iodine have atomic weights 35.5, 80.4 and 126.5 respectively. By taking the arithmetic mean of chlorine and iodine, we get the atomic weight of bromine as 35.5 + 126.5/2 = 81

Triad of alkaline earth metals – calcium, strontium and barium have atomic weights 40, 88 and 137 respectively. By taking the arithmetic mean of calcium and barium, we get the atomic weight of strontium as 40+ 137/2 = 88.

This classification was not accepted as many elements could not be grouped in triads. For very low mass or for very high mass elements, the law was not holding good, eg. F, Cl and Br. Atomic mass of Cl is not the arithmetic mean of atomic masses of F and Br.

In periodic table the vertical lines are called groups and the horizontal lines are called periods. Mendeleev suggested the periodic law, ie., the physical and the chemical properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic weights.

Mendeleev’s periodic table had certain defects:

Position of hydrogen: Hydrogen had a controversial position, i.e. it was placed in two groups, group 1 (alkali metals) and group 17 (halogens).

• Position of isotopes:
• Position of transition elements:
• Position of rare earth metals:

When Mendeleev presented his periodic table inert gases were not discovered, he easily placed these elements at the end of the table without disturbing the table.

The elements which were discovered later could be easily placed in the gaps provided in the table.

The most accepted form of periodic table is the long form of the periodic table. In 1913 Mosley modified the previous periodic law as it states that the physical and the chemical properties of the elements are the periodic functions of their atomic number. As Mosley found that the atomic number (i.e. the number of protons) is more fundamental property of an atom than its atomic weight.

On the basis of the modern periodic law proposed by Mosley, the long form of Modern or Bohr’s periodic table was prepared, which consists of 18 vertical lines (groups) and 7 horizontal lines (periods). In the long form of periodic table the elements having same number of valence electrons are placed under the same vertical columns called groups.

• The different characteristics of the long form of the periodic table are given below.
• The highly metallic elements are placed on the left hand side of the periodic table.
• The highly non-metallic elements are placed on the right hand side of the periodic table.
• The transition elements are accommodated between metals and non-metals.
• The noble gases are placed in group 18.
• The elements present in the left and right side of the vertical columns are called normal elements or responsive elements. The elements having complete penultimate shells are called normal elements or the representative elements.
• Lanthanides and Actinides are placed outside the main body of the periodic table.
• The seventh period is an incomplete period.

The elements present in different groups are given specific names like

Group Number	Name
1	Alkali Metals
2	Alkaline earth metals
17	Halogens
18	Inert Gases or Noble Gases

The horizontal rows are called periods.

• First period is the shortest period having only 2 elements.
• Second period is a short period consisting of 8 elements.
• Third period is a short period consisting of 8 elements.
• Fourth period is a long period consisting of 18 elements. Ten elements are of transition series and eight elements are normal elements.
• Fifth period is a long period consisting of 18 elements. Eight are normal elements or representative elements and ten are transition elements.
• Sixth period is a very long period consisting of 32 elements. It includes eight normal or representative elements, 10 transition elements and 14 inner transition elements of lanthanide series.
• Seventh period is an incomplete period.
• As we move down the group, the basic character of oxides increases.
• As we move across the period, the acidic character of oxides increases.
• At the end of every period there is a presence of an inert gas with octet configuration.
• Inert gases have zero valency as they can neither lose electron nor they can gain electron as they have a complete octet.
• Metals have 1,2 or 3 electrons in their valence shell.
• Metals can easily lose their outermost 1, 2 or 3 electrons to complete their outermost octet hence they act as reducing agents.
• Non-metals have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their valence shell.
• Non metals lose electrons to form positively charged particles called cations where as non metals gain electrons to form negatively charged particles called anions.

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Classification and types of Matter in Chemistry from HelpWithAssignment.com

Classification and types of Matter in Chemistry

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It exists in three phases: solids, liquid and gas. A solid has a fixed shape and volume. A liquid has a fixed volume but is not rigid in shape, it takes the shape of the container. A gas has neither a fixed volume nor a rigid shape, it takes on both the volume and the shape of the container.

Matter can be classified into two categories.

Pure substances, each of which has a fixed composition and a unique set of properties, mixtures, composed of two or more substances.

Pure substances are either elements or compounds, where as mixtures can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Elements

An element is a type of matter that cannot be broken down into two or more pure substances. There are 115 elements of which 91 occur naturally.

Many elements are familiar to all of us. The charcoal used in outdoor grills is nearly pure carbon. Electrical wiring, jewelry and water pipes are often made from copper, a metallic element. Another such element, aluminum, is used in many household utensils.

Some elements come in and out of fashion, so to speak. Sixty years ago, elemental silicon was a chemical curiosity. Today ultra pure silicon has become the basis for multibillion dollar semiconductor industry. Lead, on the other hand, is an element in the other direction. A generation ago, it was widely used to make paint pigments, plumbing connections and gasoline additives. Today, because of the toxicity of lead compounds, all of these applications have been banned in the United States.

In chemistry, an element is defined by its symbol. This consists of one or two letters, usually derived from the name of the element. Thus, the symbol for carbon is C. That for aluminum is Al. Sometimes the symbol comes from the Latin name of the element or one of its compounds. The two elements copper and mercury, which were known in ancient times, have the symbols Cu (cuprum) and Hg (Hydrargyrum).

Curiously, several of the most familiar elements are really quite rare. An example is mercury, which has been known since at least 500 B.C., even though its abundance is only 0.00005%. It can easily prepared by heating the red mineral cinnabar. Beyond that, its unique properties make it extremely useful. Because of its high density, mercury is the liquid used in barometers and manometers. Mercury dissolves many metals, forming solutions (amalgams). A silver-mercury-tin amalgam is used in filling teeth.

In contrast, aluminum (abundance 7.5%), despite its usefulness, was little more than a chemical curiosity until about a century ago. It occurs in combined form in clays and rocks, from which it cannot be extracted. In 1886 two young chemists, Charles Hall in the United States and Paul Herroult in France, independently worked out a process for extracting aluminum from relatively rare ore, bauxite. That process is still in use today to produce the element.

Compounds
A compound is a pure substance that contains more than one element. Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. The compounds methane, acetylene and naphthalene all contain the elements carbon and hydrogen, in different proportions.

Compounds have fixed compositions. That is, a given compound always contains the same elements in the same percentage by mass. A sample of pure water contains precisely 11.19% of hydrogen and 88.81% oxygen. In contrast, mixtures can vary in composition. For example, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen might contain 5, 10, 25 or 60% hydrogen, along with 95, 90, 75 and 40% oxygen.

The properties of compounds are very different from those of the elements that they contain. Ordinary table salt, sodium chloride, is a white, unreactive solid. As one can guess from its name, it contains two elements sodium and chlorine. Sodium (Na) is a shiny, extremely reactive metal. Chlorine (Cl) is a poisonous, greenish-yellow gas. Clearly, when these two elements combine to form sodium chloride, a profound change takes place. Sodium, a metallic element that is soft enough to be cut with a knife and chlorine, a nonmetallic element that is a gas. Both sodium and chlorine combine to form the crystalline compound.

Mixtures

A mixture contains two or more substances combined in such a way that each substance retains its chemical identity. When you shake copper sulfate with sand, the two substances do not react with one another.

There are two types of mixtures

Homogenous or uniform mixtures are ones in which the composition is the same throughout. Another name for a homogenous mixture is solution, which is made up of a solvent, usually taken to be the substance present in largest amount, and one or more solutes. Most commonly, the solvent is liquid, whereas solutes may be solids, liquids or gases. Soda water is a solution of carbon dioxide (solute) and water (solvent). Seawater is a more complex solution in which there are several solid solutes, including sodium chloride; the solvent, is water. It is also possible to have solutions in the solid state. Brass is a solid solution containing the two metals copper and zinc in proportions of 67-90% and 10-33% respectively.

Heterogeneous or nonuniform mixtures are those in which the composition varies throughout. Most rocks fall into this category. In a piece of granite, several components can be distinguished, differing from one another in color.

Many different methods can be used to separate the components of a mixture from one another. A couple of methods that you may have carried out in the laboratory are

Filtration, used to separate a heterogeneous solid liquid mixture. The mixture is passed through a barrier with fine pores, such as filter paper. Copper sulfate, which is water soluble, can be separated from sand by shaking with water. On filtration the sand remains on the paper and the copper sulfate solution passes through it.

Distillation, used to resolve a homogenous solid-liquid mixture. The liquid vaporizes, leaving a residue of the solid in the distilling flask. The liquid is obtained by condensing the vapor. Distillation can be used to separate the components of a water solution of copper sulfate.

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Blood Serum and Types of blood groups from HelpwithAssignment.com

Blood Serum and Types of Blood Groups

Blood Serum is a component that is a watery fluid which has proteins and that breaks off when blood coagulates. It consists of plasma minus fibrinogen. Serum has nearly the same 55% of volume as plasma. The division of biological science is concerned with antigen and antibodies reactions in serum are called serology.

Blood types are divided into 4 major groups are discussed and listed below:

Human blood ABO groups were discovered by Karl Landsteiner who was awarded by a noble price in the year 1930. ABO blood groups are based upon the certain proteins in plasma the membrane of RBCs that are coded by genes. These proteins are known as antigens. In this manner the blood type refers to the particular kind of antigen present in the plasma membrane of RBC. An antigen is a molecular agent that stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies. These antigens are attached on the surface of the RBCs called surface markers. Antigens are of two types A and B are called as agglutinogens. Where two antibodies occur in blood plasma can react with antigens of A and B. Depending on the distribution of antigens and antibodies four types of blood groups are discovered in human beings are such as, A, B, AB & O.

Blood Group	Antigens	Antibodies
A	A	Anti-B or b or Alpha (α)
B	B	Anti-A or a or Beta (β)
AB	A and B	None
O	None	Both A and B

The most important factor of blood group is RH-factor. 1940 Landsteiner and Weiner discovered the presence of another antigen in the plasma membrane of RBCs of rhesus monkeys. So they named it as Rh-factor. This Rh factor has positive type called as Rh-positive (Rh+) and negative type as Rh-negative (Rh-).

RH Positive individuals do not produce RH antibodies, as a result that would lead to a reaction of antigens-antibodies. Where as in RH-negative individuals naturally do not have antibodies but they are capable of producing them when the body feels necessary to do so. Stimulation can occur when an RH+ person receives RH+ donor, so the RH antigen on the donor RBCs will stimulate the recipient’s immune system to make RH antibodies. In case if an RH- person receives a transfusion with RH+ blood does not usually have an antigen- antibody reaction. Because it is said that immune system takes 1-2 months of time span to produce sufficient antibodies.

During that period RBCs will be removed and changed naturally. As, there are less chances to cause problem in case of 1^st transfusion. But the recipients are now RH stimulated and sub-sequent RH+ transfusion may cause problems.

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This article is in continuation with our previous articles on Biology such as Structure of Cell, Chemistry of Biology, Cell to Cell Communication, Blood and its Components

Blood and its components in Biology from helpwithassignment.com

Blood and its Components

Blood is the largest organ in an animal that flows through thousands of miles of arteries, veins and capillaries. As, these blood vessels carry blood to every other organ and keeping them functioning and to do well. Blood is a liquid that has connective tissues and consists of cells. Cells are surrounded by a matrix, which develops and has the ability to modify into other forms of connective tissue. On an average, a human adult has about 5 liters of blood circulating in his/her body continuously. This circulation of blood helps the body to maintain homeostasis, which is in three general ways such as: transportation, regulation and protection.

Components of blood:

Plasma: Plasma creates up to 55 percent of blood volume and the remaining 45 percent makes up by cellular component. Plasma is a pale yellow liquid without blood cells and platelets and has about 90 percent of water. The other 10 percent includes a variety of dissolved substances.

Plasma Protein: plasma protein has three different types of protein such as albumins, globulins and blood clotting proteins.

The Albumins: Albumins are produced by liver in a group of several small proteins that forms up with half of human plasma protein content. This albumin helps to maintain the water balance between blood and fluid that surrounds the tissue cells. Albumins also have the responsibility for transport of free fatty acids, for blood viscosity and osmotic potential.

The Globulins: The globulins are the diverse group of plasma proteins. In humans, the electrophoresis can separate alpha, beta and gamma globulins. These alpha and beta globulins transport proteins which bind and transports fat, cholesterol and fat- soluble vitamins. Erythropoietin hormone that stimulates the production of red blood cell is an alpha-globulin. The gamma-globulin includes most of the body’s anti-bodies. Alpha and beta globulins are formed in liver, while gamma- globulins are originated in lymph tissue.

Blood Clots: Blood clotting or coagulation, is the most important process that prevents excessive bleeding when a blood vessel is injured. Fibrinogen is an important blood clotting protein. While platelets and proteins work together to stop the bleeding by forming a clot over the injury.

Red Blood Cells: blood gets red in color from its abundant red blood cells. These red blood cells are also known as Erythrocytes. Carrying of oxygen and nutrients in blood is the primary function of red blood cells or RBC. Where mature RBCs cannot divide or carry on many life processes characteristic of other cells. As a result during its development each erythrocyte loses its nucleus and other organelles. Without the organelles, a red blood cell takes a biconcave disk shape. This shape is flexible and allows RBC to bend, so that they can pass easily through the tiny blood capillaries. This shape provides more space for hemoglobin molecules as well. Hemoglobin is an oxygen carrying molecule of the RBCs. Red Blood cells has a life span of 120 days. In an average human, the number of RBCs is about 5000000 per. Cu. Mm. In case for males the number is 5500000 per. Cu. Mm. and for females 4500000.

Platelets: Platelets play a prominent role in blood clotting through release of thrombokinase and help to heal wounds. These platelets circulating in blood are small cell fragments but not the entire cells. These fragments are developed from larger cells called megakaryotes. These platelets are also known as thrombocytes. These platelets have a life span of 8-10 days and these are destroyed by reticulo-endothelial system.

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This article is in continuation with our previous articles on Biology such as Structure of Cell, Chemistry of Biology, Cell-to-Cell Communication

7 Ps of Services Marketing Mix from HelpwithAssignment.com

7 Ps of Services Marketing Mix in Marketing

Traditional marketing mix was developed by keeping in view the goals of marketing. This also may be adapted to services marketing. The use of traditional marketing mix in service organizations cannot satisfy themselves because as they are to stay at sub-optimal performance in marketing. Slightly adapting marketing labels cannot resolve the problems that are affiliated with the marketing of services.

The four Ps (product, price, place & promotion) are said to be controllable variables of the traditional marketing mix. The effective combination of these four Ps components will make an organization to have a competitive edge in preference by the target market. Marketing researches also identified limitations and inefficiencies of traditional marketing mix when applied to services.

In the year 1981 7Ps marketing mix model was suggested by Boom and Bitner to service firms, which was later supported by McGrath and other marketing specialists. In addition to the four Ps in traditional marketing, services marketing mix will have three additional components are Physical evidence, People and Process.

The following elaborated components of Service marketing Mix are:

• Product: Service is an intangible product. It has bundle of features and benefits in it, which have a relevance to a specific target market. As such there is a high level flexibility and opportunity to be innovating in designing a product offer.
• Physical Evidence: Most services cannot be offered without the support of tangibles. Customers cannot see the service provided, but they can definitely see the tangibles that accompany. For example, a passenger transport organization promises for a safe, comfortable and timely journey from one place to another. Now this is examined on the bases of transport vehicle’s condition, seating facilities and other physical facilities and also the way in which the employees are responding to the customers. All these physical factors are used as evidence by the customer to evaluate and expect the service from the provider. As, a result physical evidence plays a crucial role in shaping the consumers perception as well as expectations.
• Price: The pricing decision is very critical in the field of services as well. This pricing component of marketing mix alone can determine the revenue for the firm. Consumer sensitivity to price would be higher in services than in goods. However, the basic pricing methods are the same as in goods, but for the pricing strategies for services depends on the understanding of the values of various groups of people that are targeted by the organization.
• Place (Distribution): Services are intangible and as well as inseparable. These are the two characteristics that do not allow a service firm to follow the same channel options available for goods marketing. Due to the intangible character of service wholesalers and retailers cannot be used. As, the services cannot be stored and cannot be separated from producers, retailing cannot be an independent activity in services marketing. The simultaneous activities in services are Production, distribution and consumption. Services have an advantage of using a direct selling approach, through which services are offered at lower price to the customers. As, this does not mean a direct selling, is the only way of selling the services. There are other channels of distribution such as, agents and brokers, franchisers and electronic channels that are used for distributional services.
• People: Service organizations are people oriented and people based organizations. Where the employees of a service firm, form into a major competency in undertaking the business operations. In services organization every employee is a marketing person, who undertakes either full-time or part-time service in the marketing activity. For better performance in marketing activity, service employees are to be trained and motivated.
• Promotion: Consumers are the co-producers in the service business. The quality of services will not only depend upon the performance of service provider but also on the performance of the service consumer. Very few service organizations or service concepts have readily available performers as consumers. As, it is the responsibility of service organization to educate and provide sufficient training to customers to make use of the services efficiently. A well designed promotional program is large help to the organization to inform and advice customers for better experience.
• Process: The process is a functional activity that assures service availability and quality. The way of physical setting is designed technically and the functions are scheduled and routed to provide promised services to the customers. In simple terms, the management process is to manage the service encounters effectively. Gronroos who was a marketing specialist has described process as interactive marketing wherein moments of truth occur. The challenge of process management is to improve moment of truth.

As, the 7 Ps service marketing become the marketing offer of the organization to the target market. The marketing mix aims to achieve seven distinctive goals. They are the matching offer to the consumers’ needs and wants, consumer quality expectations, consumers’ perceptions, consumers’ satisfactions consumers’ relation and consumers’ welfare and protection. The dynamic nature of target market in all the seven different areas offer challenges to marketing organization. As, service firms can be successful only when the marketing mix elements and dynamic and adaptable to the changes in the market environment.

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This article is in continuation with our previous articles on Marketing that include Marketing Assignment Help, Marketing Thesis Help, Target Market Selection, Product Life Cycle